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The phone rang, Culver was alone, and he had not been told how to answer the phone. Culver was a fan of Al Capp's comic strip "L'l Abner. On impulse, Culver answered the phone with the name of that brewery. Events during and , such as the Berlin Blockade and the testing of the first Soviet A-bomb, underlined the need for information on the Soviet Union. The efforts ended in failure. The agents were captured as soon as they landed, while the resistance groups were ruthlessly hunted down.

The armor was re- moved to raise the maximum altitude to 43, feet, above that of Soviet propeller fighters. The Mosquito overflights continued into , until the introduction of the MiG 15 jet fighter made them too dangerous. In the fall of , President Harry S Truman authorized a program to cover Soviet ports, islands, and coastal areas. RBs were stripped of unnecessary equipment, including all the guns except the twin 20mm cannons in the tail turret.

These featherweight RB- 36s could reach altitudes of 58, feet, which gave them virtual immunity from Soviet MiG 15s. The RBs were light jet reconnaissance bombers, which relied on speed and the brief duration of the overflight, rather than altitude, to escape detection.

Its performance was less than that of the MiG Their most spectacular mission was a mass overflight of Vladivostok at high noon by the entire RB force. Each target was photographed by two or three aircraft. Only two planes saw MiGs, but no interceptions were made. The planes crossed the border, covered their targets, and were back across before Soviet air defenses could react.

If the Soviets protested, the incident could be described as an "off-course training flight. In the Ural Mountains whole cities had been built that no Westerner had ever seen. Fill- ing the blank spots would take a Dark Eagle. Seaberg, who had worked as an aero- nautical engineer at Chance Vought, realized the new generation of jet en- gines being developed in the early s had an inherent high-altitude ca- pability.

If matched with extremely efficient wings, the resulting aircraft would have a maximum altitude far above the reach of any interceptor. It would be ideal for reconnaissance. By March , Seaberg had written a formal design study. It envisioned an aircraft with a maximum altitude of 70, feet, a range of 3, miles, subsonic speed, up to pounds of reconnaissance equipment, a one-man crew, and the use of existing engines.

Two requirements would have a long- term impact on both this and later Black airplanes. Under "Detectability," the requirement stated: "Consideration will be given in the design of the vehicle to minimize the detectability by enemy radar. The greatest opposition to the operation of this aircraft can be expected to be encountered from guided missiles. The aircraft was highly specialized, and the number pro- duced would be small.

A smaller company would give it both a higher pri- ority and a more innovative design. Bell Aircraft and Fairchild were asked to submit designs, while Martin was asked to modify its B Canberra light bomber. Fairchild's M design featured an intake behind the cockpit and a tail mounted on a short boom. The landing gear was a tail wheel and two main wheels in the wing. The Bell Model 67 was a large, twin-engine design of a more conventional appearance.

The Martin RBD proposal had extended outer wings and new engines. All three designs used Pratt and Whitney J57 engines, which were the best then available for such extreme altitudes. In early May , the evaluation was completed and approval was given to build two of the designs. The Martin RBD was to be the interim air- craft, able to provide a limited high-altitude capability in a short time.

It would not meet the full requirement, however. To hide its reconnaissance mission, it was designated the "X The program was given the code name "Bald Eagle. The X was a very large, yet delicate-looking aircraft.

It was It used "bicycle" landing gear—front and back wheels with two retractable outriggers in the middle of the wings for bal- ance similar to the B There were three sensor bays—one in the nose, and one in front of and one behind the rear landing gear bay. The cameras could cover an area 50 miles wide and miles long. Weight was the pri- mary concern.

The two J57 engines produced only pounds of thrust each at 65, feet. Above this, the thrust dropped off sharply. The X weighed 36, pounds fully loaded, and there was no margin for added weight or drag.

The X mock-up was finished in mid It consisted of the fuselage and included the cockpit, camera bays, a stub wing, and landing gear. A separate mock-up of the J57 engine was also built. The mock-ups were housed in a special tent, with access limited to project personnel.

Although Lockheed had not been asked to submit a proposal, he did so anyway. The CL was an XF fuselage fitted with long-span wings. It was much smaller than the X—44 feet long with a The emphasis was on weight savings. The airplane had no land- ing gear; the CL was to take off from a wheeled dolly, then land on two skids. The cockpit was unpressurized, and there was no ejector seat.

The camera bay was behind the cockpit. Johnson's proposal arrived on Seaberg's desk on May 18, , some two weeks after the go-ahead for the RBD and X In June, Seaberg recommended the CL be rejected. The primary reason was its use of the General Electric J73 engine. This was an unproven and ultimately unsuccessful design. The XF fuselage could not be easily enlarged to accommodate the preferred J57 engine.

The air force agreed with Sea- berg's recommendations. But Johnson had already submitted the proposal elsewhere. It was "considered to be the best. The prototype could be ready in a year, with five planes delivered in two years. The X, it was noted, could only reach 69, feet and had inferior speed and range. Although the Soviets ex- ploded their first A-bomb in , they had limited production facilities. In the late s and early s, Soviet delivery systems were similarly lim- ited. They had only Tu-4 bombers—copies of the B propeller bombers.

They were slow and capable of only a one-way attack on the United States. By the early s, this situation started to change. The first operational Soviet A-bombs were being deployed.

Test flights of the Soviet turboprop Tu and Mya-4 jet bombers were under way. The Soviets were also work- ing on long-range ballistic missiles. For the first time, a surprise nuclear attack on the United States seemed possible. On March 27, , President Dwight D. These fears also drove up military spending, which Eisenhower saw as a danger to the U. On July 26, Eisenhower asked Dr. James R.

Killian, the president of Massachusetts Institute of Tech- nology, "to direct a study of the country's technological capabilities to meet some of its current problems. One member of the panel Dr. Killian assembled was Dr. Edwin H. Land, a noted photo scientist. Land once said that discoveries were made by people who had freed themselves from conventional thinking and had the ability to take a new look at old data.

Land realized that technological advances promised a revolution in photo reconnaissance—thin plastic film bases, lens designs which increased reso- lution percent, computer custom grinding of lenses, and innovative camera designs that allowed a single camera to provide both high-resolution and horizon-to-horizon coverage.

Use of a camera incorporating these ad- vances would save weight, increase performance, and provide the intelli- gence the United States needed.

Aware of the growing support for the Lockheed plane, Seaberg showed the panel a graph that demonstrated that all three designs were aerodynamically similar. If the CL was fitted with a J57 engine, it would be competitive.

The follow- ing day, Johnson underwent intensive questioning about the CL John- son said he would use a J57 engine. He also promised to have the prototype ready within eight months after the go-ahead. This was an extraordinary schedule—the RBD and X projects had been under way for several months yet the RBD would not fly until November , while the X would not go aloft until early Johnson said he could beat them both, although all Lockheed had was a "paper airplane.

Entitled, "A Unique Opportunity for Comprehensive Intelligence," it stated about the CL "No proposal or program that we have seen in intelligence planning can so quickly bring so much vital information at so little risk and at so little cost. We cannot fulfill our re- sponsibility for maintaining the peace if we are left in ignorance of Russian activities.

The memo recommended that the CIA develop the CL, then set up a task force to operate the aircraft, make the overflights, and analyze the pho- tos. The memo stressed time was of the essence—soon the Soviets would develop radars, interceptors, and guided missiles able to reach 70, feet. Eisenhower agreed to production of thirty "special high-performance aircraft. The air force would buy the special high-altitude version of the J57 engines.

Once the aircraft was ready, he would decide on the overflight program. The aircraft "should be handled in an unconventional way so that it would not become entangled in the bureaucracy of the Department of Defense or troubled by rivalries among the services.

By having the CIA make the overflights and analyze the photos, the intelligence would not become entangled with the internal politics of the air force. Addition- ally, as a "civilian" aircraft, it could be "disowned" if shot down. Unlike an air force contract, there was not a long list of technical specifications. The CIA listed only performance speci- fications.

The project was given the initial code name "Aquatone. They were warned that the project was so secret that their employment record might have a two-year gap. Dick Boehme was named chief engineer, and Art Viereck was head of manufacturing.

The Angel was a much more refined aircraft than the original CL design. The fuselage was lengthened and widened to accommodate the J57 engine. Dimensions were now The XF's "T" tail was replaced by a conventional unit. The emphasis was on weight control—its empty weight was only 12, pounds.

The aluminum skin was only 0. Johnson said at one point that he would "trade his grandma" for several pounds of weight reduction. After this, every pound saved was a "grandma. The Angel was stressed for only plus The cockpit, unlike the original CL design, was pressurized.

It was very cramped, especially as the pilot had to wear a partial-pressure suit for protection in case pressurization was lost. Rather than a stick, it had a large control yoke, like that on a transport.

On the instrument panel was a driftsight-sextant. This allowed views of ground landmarks and any fight- ers trying to intercept the plane , and of the sun and stars for navigation. There was no ejector seat. Behind the cockpit was the pressurized "Q-bay" which held the camera.

Three camera systems were originally developed for use on the Angel. The "A camera" was a set of three twenty-four-inch focal-length cameras, one vertical and two oblique.

The "B camera" had a thirty-six-inch focal-length lens. The lens assembly pivoted to provide panoramic coverage. The cam- era was loaded with two rolls of film, each nine inches wide and five thou- sand feet long. Both rolls were exposed during each shot, forming an eigh- teen-by-eighteen-inch frame. As each shot was taken, the B camera moved forward slightly to compensate for the aircraft's angular motion over the ground.

The resolution of the camera was two and a half feet from 70, feet. The B camera was the embodiment of Dr. Land's vision. The "C cam- era" used a sixty-six-inch focal-length lens and was to be used for high- resolution technical intelligence. Two "pogos" kept the wings level during taxi and takeoff. When the plane left the ground, the pogos fell out. When the plane landed, the pilot would have to keep the wings level through touchdown and rollout.

When it came to a stop, the plane would tip and come to rest on one wing-tip skid. The long narrow wings were the key to the Angel's high-altitude capabil- ity. Between its high-aspect ratio, very high camber, and very low wing loading, the aircraft was given the best possible lift-drag ratio for cruise efficiency.

Because the wings were shorter than those of the RBD or X- 16, they were not affected by "aeroelastic divergence," a twisting of the wings caused by aerodynamic forces. The RB's operational life was cut short by structural failures caused by this problem. The long wings did create a particular problem—they generated a strong pitch force, which had to be counteracted by the tail.

This was particularly evident at high speeds and in turbulence. Rather than beefing up the tail. This moved the wing's center of lift slightly and reduced wing and tail loading. The procedure, called "gust control," was later used on airliners. The fuel carried in the wing tanks was also special.

The Angel would be exposed to negativedegree Fahrenheit F temperatures for eight hours or more. Normal JP-4 jet fuel would freeze. Shell Oil developed a special kerosene that would not freeze or evaporate in the extreme cold and low pressure at 70,plus feet.

By the end of , the aircraft's design was set and construction of two prototypes could begin. Johnson selected Lockheed chief test pilot Anthony W. LeVier to make the initial flights. In one harrowing accident, he had bailed out of a P that was cut in half by a disintegrating engine.

LeVier was called into Johnson's office and asked if he wanted to fly a new airplane. LeVier asked, "What plane? LeVier spent several days plotting a route to visit potential test sites in the deserts of southern California, Nevada, and Arizona.

Scattered throughout the area are dry lake beds, ranging from less than a mile to several miles in diameter. Johnson asked him to look for a site that was "remote, but not too remote. Once out of sight of the factory, they changed course and headed toward the desert.

For the next two weeks, LeVier and Kammerer spent their "vacation" photographing and mapping possible sites.

When Richard M. Bissell Jr. Osmond J. Then Ritland recalled "a little X-shaped field" in Nevada he had flown over many times while involved with U. He offered to show it to Bissell and Johnson. They did not have a clearance, so flew in at low altitude. Ritland said later, "We flew over it and within thirty seconds, you knew that was the place. Man alive, we looked at that lake, and we all looked at each other. It was another Edwards, so we wheeled around, landed on that lake, taxied up to one end of it, and Kelly Johnson said, 'We'll put it right here, that's the hangar.

The place was called "Groom Lake. Yearly rainfall was only four and a third inches. The sediment flows to low areas, where it settles. The degree F heat of summer dries the mud, leaving a flat, hard surface.

In winter, temperatures drop to below freezing and light snowfall can dust the area. Strong afternoon winds often hit the area, although thunderstorms are rare. One such storm would have an important part in Groom Lake's history, however. The lake bed was littered with empty shell cases and debris from target practice.

An airstrip was built on the east side of the lake bed. With the end of the war, the site was abandoned. By early , the runway had reverted to sand and was unusable.

Ritland said it "had got hummocks and sagebrush that wouldn't quit. A few miles to the north is the 9,foot summit of Bald Mountain. The mountains loom like walls above the lake bed. The only nearby towns are "wide spots in the road" such as Rachel, Nevada. Las Vegas is nearly miles to the southwest. It was the perfect place to hide a secret. The only access to the site was by air. The AEC's security restrictions would cut off both ground and air access, effectively protecting the site and its secrets.

The Groom Lake site was approved, and the re- stricted area around the nuclear test site was extended to encompass it. A small but complete flight test center would have to be created out in the desert. The facility plans were given to a contractor who had the special license needed to build at the nuclear test site.

This led to a problem—when the contractor asked for bids, he was told to watch out for "this CLJ outfit" because it had no Dun and Bradstreet credit rating. They had no idea what the facil- ity would be used for. The site included a 5,foot tarmac runway, two hangars, a small tower, several water wells, fuel storage tanks, a mess hall, a road, plus some temporary buildings and trailers for living quarters. These were located on the southwestern edge of the lake bed.

The site was isolated, rugged, barren, and lacking in personal comfort. This was more than made up for by a pioneering spirit. In early July , LeVier was told to fly out to the site.

This was his first visit since the first survey with Johnson, Ritland, and Bissell. He was stunned by the changes. His first action was to get the lake bed ready. As at Edwards Air Force Base, the lake bed would be used for takeoffs and land- ings.

LeVier and fellow Lockheed test pilot Bob Matye spent nearly a month driving around the lake bed in a pickup truck cleaning up spent shell cases, rocks, brush, and even half a steamroller. The money was not in the budget. In order to recruit people, Johnson dubbed the site "Paradise Ranch.

At A. The Skunk Works crew would follow in a C There was a delay—the local commander re- fused permission for the C to land on the runway at Groom Lake, be- cause the wheels of the heavily loaded plane would break through the thin surface. He wanted it to land at another base, then have the prototype moved to Groom Lake over bad dirt roads. This would delay the first flight by a week, however. Johnson argued that they could let most of the air out of the C's tires, reducing the surface pressure.

Permission was given, the tire pressure was reduced, and Article was successfully flown to Groom Lake. It was in a bare-metal finish—no U. Article was ready for its first taxi tests on August 1, The first run, to a speed of 50 knots, was successful, even though the brakes were found to be ineffective. The second taxi run reached 70 knots.

LeVier cut the throttle to idle, then realized he was some twenty feet in the air. Article continued to fly for over a quarter of a mile. LeVier tried to land the plane, but it was impossible to judge his height above the lake bed. The plane contacted the lake bed in a degree bank—the left wing-tip skid hit first, then the left pogo, main gear, and finally, the tail wheel.

The landing was hard, and the plane bounced back into the air. The second landing was much smoother, and LeVier was able to regain control. As the plane rolled to a stop, the right tire blew and caught fire. This was extinguished in short order. Despite the mishap, no major damage was done, and repairs were completed the next day. LeVier, in his pilot report, said, "The lake bed dur- ing this run was absolutely unsatisfactory from the standpoint of being able to distinguish distance or height.

The following day, August 2, two more taxi runs were made. LeVier pushed the control wheel forward to keep the plane on the ground. The runs uncovered a few minor problems: poor braking, reflections on the windshield, and the need for a sunshade to keep the cockpit from becoming too hot. LeVier wrote in his pilot report, "I believe the aircraft is ready for flight. It was planned for a maxi- mum speed of knots and an altitude of 8, feet. The aircraft's low- speed control would be checked.

The plane would stay close to the lake bed. The weather for the first flight was threatening, with thunderstorms near Groom Lake. The C made a weather check. At P. Then began a series of events that turned the first flight into a cliff- hanger. LeVier twice tried to start the plane's engine, but his attempts failed. The fuel was not immediately available, and the T did not take off again until P. LeVier was finally able to start the engine. During the delay, the wind had shifted and LeVier had to reposition the aircraft.

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